evaluate surface（《The Environment》）

本文目录

• 《The Environment》
• Maya软件的全部翻译
• 葡萄酒品鉴 英文
• Assessment of Groundwater Vulnerability

《The Environment》

Environment, all of the external factors affecting an organism. These factors may be other living organisms (biotic factors) or nonliving variables (abiotic factors), such as temperature, rainfall, day length, wind, and ocean currents. The interactions of organisms with biotic and abiotic factors form an ecosystem. Even minute changes in any one factor in an ecosystem can influence whether or not a particular plant or animal species will be successful in its environment.
Organisms and their environment constantly interact, and both are changed by this interaction. Like all other living creatures, humans have clearly changed their environment, but they have done so generally on a grander scale than have all other species. Some of these human-induced changes—such as the destruction of the world’s tropical rain forests to create farms or grazing land for cattle—have led to altered climate patterns (see Global Warming). In turn, altered climate patterns have changed the way animals and plants are distributed in different ecosystems.
Scientists study the long-term consequences of human actions on the environment, while environmentalists—professionals in various fields, as well as concerned citizens—advocate ways to lessen the impact of human activity on the natural world.
The science of ecology attempts to explain why plants and animals live where they do and why their populations are the sizes they are. Understanding the distribution and population size of organisms helps scientists evaluate the health of the environment.
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In 1840 German chemist Justus von Liebig first proposed that populations cannot grow indefinitely, a basic principle now known as the Law of the Minimum. Biotic and abiotic factors, singly or in combination, ultimately limit the size that any population may attain. This size limit, known as a population’s carrying capacity, occurs when needed resources, such as food, breeding sites, and water, are in short supply. For example, the amount of nutrients in soil influences the amount of wheat that grows on a farm. If just one soil nutrient, such as nitrogen, is missing or below optimal levels, fewer healthy wheat plants will grow.
Population size and distribution may also be affected, either directly or indirectly, by the way species in an ecosystem interact with one another. In an experiment performed in the late 1960s in the rocky tidal zone along the Pacific Coast of the United States, American ecologist Robert Paine studied an area that contained 15 species of invertebrates, including starfish, mussels, limpets, barnacles, and chitons. Paine found that in this ecosystem one species of starfish preyed heavily on a species of mussel, preventing that mussel population from multiplying and monopolizing space in the tidal zone. When Paine removed the starfish from the area, he found that the mussel population quickly increased in size, crowding out most other organisms from rock surfaces. The number of invertebrate species in the ecosystem soon dropped to eight species. Paine concluded that the loss of just one species, the starfish, indirectly led to the loss of an additional six species and a transformation of the ecosystem.
Typically, the species that coexist in ecosystems have evolved together for many generations. These populations have established balanced interactions with each other that enable all populations in the area to remain relatively stable. Occasionally, however, natural or human-made disruptions occur that have unforeseen consequences to populations in an ecosystem. For example, 17th-century sailors routinely introduced goats to isolated oceanic islands, intending for the goats to roam freely and serve as a source of meat when the sailors returned to the islands during future voyages. As nonnative species free from all natural predators, the goats thrived and, in the process, overgrazed many of the islands. With a change in plant composition, many of the native animal species on the islands were driven to extinction. A simple action, the introduction of goats to an island, yielded many changes in the island ecosystem, demonstrating that all members of a community are closely interconnected.
To better understand the impact of natural and human disruptions on the Earth, in 1991 the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) began to use artificial satellites to study global change. NASA’s undertaking, called Earth Science Enterprise, is part of an international effort linking numerous satellites into a single Earth Observing System (EOS). EOS collects information about the interactions occurring in the atmosphere, on land, and in the oceans, and these data help scientists and lawmakers make sound environmental policy decisions.
The problems facing the environment are vast and diverse. Global warming, the depletion of the ozone layer in the atmosphere, and destruction of the world’s rain forests are just some of the problems that many scientists believe will reach critical proportions in the coming decades. All of these problems will be directly affected by the size of the human population.
Human population growth is at the root of virtually all of the world’s environmental problems. Although the growth rate of the world’s population has slowed slightly since the 1990s, the world’s population increases by about 77 million human beings each year. As the number of people increases, crowding generates pollution, destroys more habitats, and uses up additional natural resources.
The Population Division of the United Nations (UN) predicts that the world’s population will increase from 6.23 billion people in 2000 to 9.3 billion people in 2050. The UN estimates that the population will stabilize at more than 11 billion in 2200. Other experts predict that numbers will continue to rise into the foreseeable future, to as many as 19 billion people by the year 2200.
Although rates of population increase are now much slower in the developed world than in the developing world, it would be a mistake to assume that population growth is primarily a problem of developing countries. In fact, because larger amounts of resources per person are used in developed nations, each individual from the developed world has a much greater environmental impact than does a person from a developing country. Conservation strategies that would not significantly alter lifestyles but that would greatly lessen environmental impact are essential in the developed world.
In the developing world, meanwhile, the most important factors necessary to lower population growth rates are democracy and social justice. Studies show that population growth rates have fallen in developing areas where several social conditions exist. In these areas, literacy rates have increased and women receive economic status equal to that of men, enabling women to hold jobs and own property. In addition, birth control information in these areas is more widely available, and women are free to make their own reproductive decisions.
Like the glass panes in a greenhouse, certain gases in the Earth’s atmosphere permit the Sun’s radiation to heat Earth. At the same time, these gases retard the escape into space of the infrared energy radiated back out by Earth. This process is referred to as the greenhouse effect. These gases, primarily carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, and water vapor, insulate Earth’s surface, helping to maintain warm temperatures. Without these gases, Earth would be a frozen planet with an average temperature of about -18°C (about 0°F) instead of a comfortable 15°C (59°F). If the concentration of these gases rises, they trap more heat within the atmosphere, causing worldwide temperatures to rise.
Within the last century, the amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere has increased dramatically, largely because people burn vast amounts of fossil fuels—coal and petroleum and its derivatives. Average global temperature also has increased—by about 0.6 Celsius degree (1 Fahrenheit degree) within the past century. Atmospheric scientists have found that at least half of that temperature increase can be attributed to human activity. They predict that unless dramatic action is taken, global temperature will continue to rise by 1.4 to 5.8 Celsius degrees (2.5 to 10.4 Fahrenheit degrees) over the next century. Although such an increase may not seem like a great difference, during the last ice age the global temperature was only 2.2 Celsius degrees (4 Fahrenheit degrees) cooler than it is presently.
The consequences of such a modest increase in temperature may be devastating. Already scientists have detected a 40 percent reduction in the average thickness of Arctic ice. Other problems that may develop include a rise in sea levels that will completely inundate a number of low-lying island nations and flood many coastal cities, such as New York and Miami. Many plant and animal species will probably be driven into extinction, agriculture will be severely disrupted in many regions, and the frequency of severe hurricanes and droughts will likely increase
The ozone layer, a thin band in the stratosphere (layer of the upper atmosphere), serves to shield Earth from the Sun’s harmful ultraviolet rays. In the 1970s, scientists discovered that chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)—chemicals used in refrigeration, air-conditioning systems, cleaning solvents, and aerosol sprays—destroy the ozone layer. CFCs release chlorine into the atmosphere; chlorine, in turn, breaks down ozone molecules. Because chlorine is not affected by its interaction with ozone, each chlorine molecule has the ability to destroy a large amount of ozone for an extended period of time.
The consequences of continued depletion of the ozone layer would be dramatic. Increased ultraviolet radiation would lead to a growing number of skin cancers and cataracts and also reduce the ability of immune systems to respond to infection. Additionally, growth of the world’s oceanic plankton, the base of most marine food chains, would decline. Plankton contains photosynthetic organisms that break down carbon dioxide. If plankton populations decline, it may lead to increased carbon dioxide levels in the atmosphere and thus to global warming. Recent studies suggest that global warming, in turn, may increase the amount of ozone destroyed. Even if the manufacture of CFCs is immediately banned, the chlorine already released into the atmosphere will continue to destroy the ozone layer for many decades.
In 1987 an international pact called the Montréal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer set specific targets for all nations to achieve in order to reduce emissions of chemicals responsible for the destruction of the ozone layer. Many people had hoped that this treaty would cause ozone loss to peak and begin to decline by the year 2000. In fact, in the fall of 2000, the hole in the ozone layer over Antarctica was the largest then recorded. The hole the following year was slightly smaller, leading some to believe that the depletion of ozone had stabilized. However, in 2006 U.S. government scientists reported that the ozone loss over Antarctica reached its greatest extent ever that year. Ozone loss can vary with temperature, and many scientists believe that the 2006 record loss was due to lower-than-normal temperatures. These scientists report that although CFC levels in the atmosphere peaked in 2001, many of these chemicals are long-lasting. They believe the ozone layer over Antarctica may not fully recover until 2065.
Plant and animal species are dying out at an unprecedented rate (see Endangered Species). Estimates range that from 4,000 to as many as 50,000 species per year become extinct. The leading cause of extinction is habitat destruction, particularly of the world’s richest ecosystems—tropical rain forests and coral reefs. If the world’s rain forests continue to be cut down at the current rate, they may completely disappear by the year 2030. In addition, if the world’s population continues to grow at its present rate and puts even more pressure on these habitats, they might well be destroyed sooner.
A significant portion of industry and transportation burns fossil fuels, such as gasoline. When these fuels burn, chemicals and particulate matter are released into the atmosphere. Although a vast number of substances contribute to air pollution, the most common air pollutants contain carbon, sulfur, and nitrogen. These chemicals interact with one another and with ultraviolet radiation in sunlight in dangerous ways. Smog, usually found in urban areas with large numbers of automobiles, forms when nitrogen oxides react with hydrocarbons in the air to produce aldehydes and ketones. Smog can cause serious health problems.
Industrial Smokestacks
Brown Smog Over Phoenix, Arizona
Industrial Smokestacks
Carbon dioxide, sulfur dioxide, and other types of contaminants pouring from industrial smokestacks contribute to worldwide atmospheric pollution. Carbon dioxide contributes significantly to global warming, while sulfur dioxide is the principal cause of acid rain in the northeastern United States, southeastern Canada, and eastern Europe. Other environmental problems stemming from smokestack emissions include respiratory diseases, poisoned lakes and streams, and damaged forests and crops.
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Kim Westerskov/Oxford Scientific Films
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Brown Smog Over Phoenix, Arizona
Smog is caused by industrial and automobile pollution. It is compounded by temperature inversions, which cause the air pollution to be kept in a particular area for extended periods. Continued exposure to smog can result in respiratory problems, eye irritation, and even death.
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Eric Kamp/Phototake NYC
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Acid rain forms when sulfur dioxide and nitrous oxide transform into sulfuric acid and nitric acid in the atmosphere and come back to Earth in precipitation. Acid rain has made numerous lakes so acidic that they no longer support fish populations. Acid rain is also responsible for the decline of many forest ecosystems worldwide, including Germany’s Black Forest and forests throughout the eastern United States.
Estimates suggest that nearly 1.5 billion people worldwide lack safe drinking water and that at least 5 million deaths per year can be attributed to waterborne diseases. Water pollution may come from point sources or nonpoint sources. Point sources discharge pollutants from specific locations, such as factories, sewage treatment plants, and oil tankers. The technology exists to monitor and regulate point sources of pollution, although in some areas this occurs only sporadically. Pollution from nonpoint sources occurs when rainfall or snowmelt moves over and through the ground. As the runoff moves, it picks up and carries away pollutants, such as pesticides and fertilizers, depositing the pollutants into lakes, rivers, wetlands, coastal waters, and even underground sources of drinking water. Pollution arising from nonpoint sources accounts for a majority of the contaminants in streams and lakes.
With almost 80 percent of the planet covered by oceans, people have long acted as if those bodies of water could serve as a limitless dumping ground for wastes. However, raw sewage, garbage, and oil spills have begun to overwhelm the diluting capabilities of the oceans, and most coastal waters are now polluted, threatening marine wildlife. Beaches around the world close regularly, often because the surrounding waters contain high levels of bacteria from sewage disposal.
Water that collects beneath the ground is called groundwater. Worldwide, groundwater is 40 times more abundant than fresh water in streams and lakes. In the United States, approximately half the drinking water comes from groundwater. Although groundwater is a renewable resource, reserves replenish relatively slowly. Presently, groundwater in the United States is withdrawn approximately four times faster than it is naturally replaced. The Ogallala Aquifer, a huge underground reservoir stretching under eight states of the Great Plains, is drawn down at rates exceeding 100 times the replacement rate. Agricultural practices depending on this source of water need to change within a generation in order to save this groundwater source.
In addition to groundwater depletion, scientists worry about groundwater contamination, which arises from leaking underground storage tanks, poorly designed industrial waste ponds, and seepage from the deep-well injection of hazardous wastes into underground geologic formations. By some estimates, on average, 25 percent of usable groundwater is contaminated, and in some areas as much as 75 percent is contaminated.
Global environmental collapse is not inevitable. But the developed world must work with the developing world to ensure that new industrialized economies do not add to the world’s environmental problems. Politicians must think of sustainable development rather than economic expansion. Conservation strategies have to become more widely accepted, and people must learn that energy use can be dramatically diminished without sacrificing comfort. In short, with the technology that currently exists, the years of global environmental mistreatment can begin to be reversed.

Maya软件的全部翻译

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File 文件 New Scene 建立新场景 Enable default scene 使用默认的场景 Default scene 默认场景 Default Working Units 默认的工作单位 Linear 长度单位 millimeter 毫米 centimeter 厘米 meter 米 inch 英寸 foot 英尺 yard 光年 Angular 角度单位 degrees 角度 radians 弧度 Time 时间 Default Timeline Settings 默认的时间线设置 Playback start/end 回放起始结束帧 Animation start/end 动画起始结束帧 Open Scene 打开场景 File type 文件类型 Execute script nodes 执行脚本节点 Load Settings 调用设置 Load default references 调用默认参照 Load all references 调用所以参照 Load top-level top-level only 仅调顶级参照 Load no references 不调用参照 Selective preload 选择性调用 Save Scene 保存场景 Incremental save 递增保存 Limit incremental save 限制保存次数 Number of incremental 递增次数 Save Scene As 另存场景 Default file extensions 默认文件扩展名 Copy texture maps 纹理 Always 总是 Unless referenced 除非参照 Disk Cache Options 磁盘缓冲 File Type Specific Options 文件类型细节 Use full names for attributes on nodes 在节点上使用属性全名 Save Preferences 保存参数 Optimize Scene Size 优化场景尺寸 Remove invalid 移除无效的 Remove empty 移除空的 Remove unused 移除无用的 Remove duplicate 移除重复的 Import 导入 Group 组 Remove duplicate 移除重复 Preserve references 保留参照 Use namespaces 使用名字空间 Export All 导出所有 Export Selection 导出选定对象 Keep only a reference 仅保留一个参考 Prefix with 添加前缀 Include these inputs 包含下列这些输入 Include texture info 包含纹理信息 View Image 查看图片 View Sequence 查看序列帧 Create Reference 导入场景文件 Deferred 延缓 Lock 锁定 Locator 定位器 Reference Editor 参考器 Create Reference 创建参考文件 Import Objects from Reference 从参考中输入对象 Export Selection 输出选择 Save Reference Edits 保存参考 List Reference Edits 列出参考 List Unknown Edits 列出未知 Clean Up Reference 清楚参考 Select File Contents 选择文件内容 Reference 参照 Reload Reference 重加载参照 Unload Reference 卸载参照 Load Reload Reference 调用相关参照 Unload Reload Reference 卸载相关参照 Duplicate Reference 复制参照 Recently Reference 替换参照 Recently Reference Files 最近替换的文件 Remove Reference 移除参照 Lock Reference 锁定参照 Unlock Reference 解除参照 Proxy 代理 Add Proxy 增加代理 Remove Proxy as 重载代理 Reload Proxy 移除代理 Switch Tag for Active Proxy to 切换激活代理的标记 Switch Tag for Proxy 切换代理的标记 View Selected References 查看选择的参考 View All References 查看所以参考 Project 工程 Edit Current 当前项目 Recent Files 最近文件 Recent Increments 增量文件 Recent Projects 最近工程 Exit 退出 Edit Undo 取消上一次操作 Redo 恢复上一次操作 Repeat 重复上一次操作 Recent Commands List 最后使用的命令 Cut 剪切 Copy 复制 Paste 粘贴 Keys 关键帧 Cut Keys 剪切关键帧 Copy Keys 复制关键帧 Paste Keys 粘贴关键帧 Delete Keys 删除关键帧 Scale Keys 缩放关键帧 Snap Keys 吸附关键桢 Bake Simulation 模拟复制 Delete 删除 Delete by Type 根据类型删除 History 历史记录 Non-Deformer History 没有变形的历史 All Non-Deformer History 所以没有变形的历史 History before deformers only 仅没有变形前的历史 Channels 通道 Hierarchy 层级 Selected 选择的 Below 下层 All keyable 所以可设关键桢属性 From Channel Box 通道盒属性 Driven channels 驱动通道 Control point 控制点 Shapes 形节器 Static Channels 静帧通道 Motion Paths 运动路径 Expressions 表达式 Constraints 约束 Rigid Bodies 刚体 Delete All by Type 根据类型删除所有 History 历史 Channels 通道 Static Channels 静帧通道 Motion Paths 运动路径 Non-particle Expressions 非离子表达式 Constraints 约束 Sounds 声音 Rigid Bodies 刚体 Select All by Type 根据类型选择所有 Clips 片段 Lattices 晶格 Clusters 箸 Sculpt Objects 雕刻物体 Nonlinears 非线形变形器 Wires 线变形器 Shading Group and Materials 阴影组和材质 Particles 粒子 Rigid Bodies 刚体 Rigid Constraints 刚体约束 Fluids 物流 Fur 毛发 nCloths 布料 nRigids 刚体 Dynamic Constraints 动力学约束 Select Tool 选择工具 Lasso Select Tool 选择套索工具 Paint Selection Tool 绘图选择工具 Select All 选择所有 Deselect 取消选择 Select Hierarchy 选择层级 Invert Selection 反选 Select All by Type 按类型全部选择 Transforms 变形节点 Geometry 几何体 Polygon Geometry 多边形几何体 Subdiv Geometry 细分体 Brushes 画笔 Strokes 笔画 Quick Select Sets 快速选择组 Duplicate 复制 Duplicate Special 专用复制 Geometry type 几何体类型 Instance 实例 Group under 群组类型 Parent 父子 World 世界坐标系 New group 新的群组 Smart transform 智能变换 Translate 位移 Rotate 旋转 Number of copies 复制份数 Duplicate input graph 复制输入节点 Duplicate input connections 复制输入连接 Instance leaf nodes 实例化子节点 Assign unique name to child nodes 为子节点指定单独的名称 Duplicate with Transform 变换复制 Group under 群组类型 World 世界坐标系 Center 中心 Origin 原点 Group pivot 群组轴中心点 Preserve position 保持位置 Ungroup 打散群组 Ungroup under 打散群组类型 Level with Detail 细节层级 Parent method 父化方式 Move objects 移动对象 Add instance 增加实例 Preserve position保存位置 Unparent 解除父子 Unparent method 解除父化方式 Parent to world 作为世界系子物体 Remove instance 清除实例 Modify 修改 Transformation Tools 变形工具 Move Tool 移动工具 Rotate Tool 旋转工具 Scale Tool 缩放工具 Universal Manipulator 通用操作器 Move Normal Tool 移动法线工具 Move/Rotate/Scale Tool 移动旋转缩放工具 Show Manipulator Tool 显示操作杆 Default Object Manipulator 默认操作器 Move 移动 Transform 变换操作器 Proportional Modi Tool 比例修改工具 Soft Modification Tool 柔性修改工具 Reset Transformations 重设变换 Freeze Transformations 变换归零 Joint orient 骨骼方向 Normals 法线 Only for non-rigid transformations 仅针对非刚体的变换有效 Snap Align Objects 捕捉对齐物体 Grandparent 祖父物体 Snap type 捕捉类型 Left 左 Middle 中 Right 右 Align Objects 对齐物体 Align mode 对齐模式 Align in 对齐轴 Align to 对齐到 Selection average 选择对象的平均值 Last selected object 最后选择的对象 Align Tool 对齐工具 Snap Together Tool 捕捉聚集工具 Enable Nodes 授权动画节点 Move and rotate object 移动并选择物体 Snap to polygon face 捕捉到多边形边上Evaluate Nodes 解算节点 Evaluate All 解算所以节点 Ignore All 忽略所有节点 IK solvers 逆向运动连接器 Global Stitch 全局缝合 nucleuses 核子解算器 Snapshots 快照 Make Live 激活构造物 Center Pivot 中心化枢轴点 Prefix Hierarchy Names 为层级名前添加前缀 Search and Replace Name搜索并替换名称 Add Attribute 增加属性 Long name 属性名称 Make attribute 可关键桢属性 Vector 向量 Integer 整型变量 String 字符串 Float 浮点型变量 Boolean 布尔变量 Enum 列举型 Scalar 标量 Per particle 每个粒子 Add initial state attribute 添加初始状态属性 Minimum 最大值 Maximum 最小值 Default 默认值 Particle 粒子 Control 控制 Edit Attribute 属性 Numeric Attribute Properties 属性的参数值 Keyable 可关键桢 Displayable 不可关键桢 Has minimum 存在最小值 Has maximum 存在最大值 Enum Name 列举名称 Delete Attribute 删除属性 Convert 转换 Subdiv 细分表面 Attach multiple output meshes 合并多片面 Merge tolerance 合并容差 Match render tessellation 配色渲染细分 Triangles 三角形 Quads 四边形 Tessellation method 镶嵌细分方式 General 常规 Count 数目 Standard fit 标准匹配 Chord height ratio 弧高比率 Fractional tolerance 细分公差 Minimal edge length 最小边的长度 3D delta 3D增量 Maximum base mesh faces 基于网格的最大面数 Maximum edges per vertex 每个点转化为边的最大值 Subdivision surface mode 细分面模式 Standard 标准 Proxy object 代理物体 Keep original 保留原物体 Tessellation method 镶嵌细分方式 Uniform 统一 Adaptive 适应 Polygon count 多边形数目 Vertices 顶点 Level 层级 Divisions per face 每个面的细分次数 Maximum number polygons 多边形的最大数值 Origin object 原始物体 Replace 取代 Hide 隐藏 Share UVs 共享UV Output type 输出类型 Paint Effects 原始笔画 Vertex color mode 顶点着色模式 None 无 Color 着色 Illuminated 照明 Quad output 输出四边形 Hide strokes 隐藏笔画 Poly limit 多边形数目极限 Input image 输入的图像 Quantize 量化 Quantize levels 量化级别 Search radius 探索半径 Minimum segment size 最小片段大小 Color range 颜色范围 Maximum color difference 最大颜色差异 Max point to add 要添加的点的上限 Fit to selection 适配至所选 Surface offset 曲面偏移 UV set UV集合 Generate shaders 产生着色 Shader template 着色器模板 Displacement 置换 Fluid 液体 Paint Scripts Tool 脚本工具 Paint Attributes Tool 属性绘制工具 Create 创建 NURBS Primitives NURBS基本几何体 Sphere 球体 Pivot 枢轴点 Object 物体 User defined 用户自定义 Pivot point 枢轴点坐标 Axis 轴向 Free 自由

葡萄酒品鉴 英文

What is tasting?
Tasting is not drinking. Although wine is made to drink and enjoy, there are also times when it has to be judged and assessed. Mastering the art of tasting is essential in order to get the most out of your wine drinking. more...
Looking

Examining a wine will tell you a number of things, even before you smell or taste it. Hold the glass, ideally against a white background, and take a look. Colour depends on a wine’s age, its sweetness, its degree of oakiness and, of course, the grape variety from which it’s made.

Just looking at a plateful of delicious food increases our enjoyment and appetite - and it’s the same with wine. Apart from the fact that our appetites are whetted by the anticipation of what is to come, looking can also tell us an awful lot about what we’re about to put in our mouths. You should tip the glass away from you at an angle of 45 degrees and hold it against a white background - a piece of white paper is fine - to see the true colour of the wine.
Perhaps the most obvious characteristic of wine is its colour. Is it white, red - or a rose? Having determined the basics, take a closer look. The colour of your white wine could range between pale straw and rich golden yellow, depending on its age, its sweetness, its degree of oakiness and, of course, the grape variety from which it was made. As a rule, lighter wines such as Sauvignon Blancs tend to be paler than heavier Chardonnays, and the gold tinge of an aged Chardonnay will be more pronounced than that of a younger one.
Red wines can also be analysed in a similar way. The deeper the colour, the more concentrated the flavour. Stand a glass of Pinot Noir next to a glass of Syrah and you will easily see the difference between the two - the Pinot will be an almost transparent light ruby red, while the Syrah will verge towards a dense purpley red. A mouthful from each glass is bound to confirm the visual impression. Tilt the glass a little and take a look at the meniscus (the curved upper surface and rim) of the fluid - as a red wine ages, it will take on an amber-brown tinge, and this is most easily discernible at the rim.
As you tip your glass back towards you, you may notice clear traces of liquid sticking to the side of the glass as they slide slowly back into the body of the wine - these are called tears or legs, and indicate high alcohol or residual sugar content.
Finally, looking at your wine will give you advance warning of any major defects - if you find white filaments floating in your wine, reject it outright as these are almost certainly present due to unclean bottling.
Smell is absolutely crucial to taste. Your nose can tell you a great deal about a wine before you even taste it so put your nose well into the glass and sniff. Does the wine have little aroma or a powerful one? What can you smell - fruits and what kind, herbs, minerals, spice, wet dog?
The sense of smell and the sense of taste are so closely intertwined that one could not exist without the other. For this reason, your nose can tell you a great deal about a wine before you even taste it.
A properly designed glass can help capture a wine’s aromas and funnel them in the right direction. While glasses intended for use with reds tend to have a larger bowl than those made for whites, both types should taper towards the top, ’steering’ the bouquet towards your nose rather than allowing it to dissipate from a large surface area. Swirl the wine in the glass so that most of its interior surface is coated in liquid as this helps to release the wine’s aroma. Put your nose well into the glass and sniff.
As with the colour of a wine, its perfume will vary according to its age and composition. The region where it was made can also influence its aroma, as can ageing in oak barrels. Think about the smell. Is it powerful and complex or simple and light? Does it linger or is it soon dissipated?
Grape variety has a profound influence on a wine’s perfume. The aroma of Sauvignon Blanc, for instance, is classically described as ’cat’s pee on a gooseberry bush’, Cabernet Sauvignons are often characterised as having a blackcurrant quality and Pinot Noirs have something of the barnyard about them.
As a wine ages, its aroma may change - white wines often become more honeyed over the years, while young whites are often described with reference to fresh flowers, fruit or newly cut grass.
A good sniff will also give you clues about a wine’s condition - if it is corked it will smell musty. A whiff of burnt matches is the hallmark of a wine to which sulphur has been added as a preservative (this is quite common in cheap white wines). An oxidised wine will be given away by a rich burnt scent, similar to that of Madeira wine (an additional clue comes with looking at an oxidised wine, which usually appears brownish in colour).
Be as poetic as you want in your evocation of a wine’s bouquet and have confidence in your ability to judge its qualities. After all, there is no right or wrong in anyone’s description of a wine - it is just a highly personal reaction to the scent released from the glass.
Take a mouthful. Swish it around your mouth and between your teeth. Does the wine just have a simple flavour or does it have different flavours that change in your mouth? Is the texture light like water or does it have roundness and body? Does the wine feel sensuous, or is it harsh?
Important as the senses of sight and smell are when it comes to our enjoyment of a wine, the ultimate test is its taste. Take a mouthful of the liquid and swish it around in your mouth quite vigorously. Breathe as you do so, as this helps to aerate the wine and increases its flavour. After holding the wine in your mouth for 15 to 20 seconds, spit it out - or swallow it if you’re not intending to taste more than a couple of wines.
Your tongue has a range of taste receptors in different places - you will taste sweetness most at the front, acidity along the sides and bitterness at the back. High acidity will make your mouth water, while tannin (which tends to be most pronounced in young red wines intended for long cellarage) will have the opposite effect.
When you evaluate the wine, first take into account its complexity and weight. Again, these qualities will depend on many factors, including the grape varieties used and the age of the wine: a fine aged Bordeaux will be far denser than a young Beaujolais.
Certain characteristics are associated with the various types of grape and even with the area where a wine is grown - an Australian Riesling might be described as having tropical fruit flavours, while a Riesling from Alsace would be lighter and have a more mineral/citrus quality.
In Old World wines, certain grape varieties tend to be associated with particular areas. One could say with a reasonable degree of certainty that a wine made from Pinot Noir grapes probably comes from Burgundy. This is now increasingly the case in the New World as well. Marlborough in New Zealand, for example, is now concentrating white wine production on its famed Sauvignon Blancs.
There is no right or wrong conclusion to be drawn about any individual wine. Describe it according to your own perception - after all, tasting is meant to encourage you to create your own frame of reference for the wines you drink. Learn about the tastes that you enjoy - and those you don’t - then follow the instincts that you have developed when it comes to buying wine in a restaurant or for drinking at home.
Always spit out the wine you taste - any taster who didn’t would become incapable after half an hour. You should spit the wine firmly and accurately in a single jet through pursed lips. Practising at home beforehand in front of a mirror can often help.
’Alcohol is ultimately stronger than anyone’s constitution,’ as American wine expert Jeff Morgan said. You should always spit out the wine you taste - any taster who didn’t would become incapable after half an hour.
Spittoons are provided at all tastings. They may take the shape of a metallic funnel, a box filled with sawdust, or any other bowl-shaped receptacle. At seated tastings, individual receptacles like ice buckets or plastic jugs are provided.
You should spit the wine firmly and accurately in a single jet through pursed lips. Practising at home beforehand in front of a mirror can often help. Etiquette dictates that precedence is always given at the spittoon - you should never spit diagonally across another taster. You should also try not to address a question to a taster who is obviously concentrating on a mouthful of wine.
Tasting 100 wines over three or four hours has some effect on the senses. No matter how carefully you spit, you are absorbing alcohol through your nose, your sinus and your throat.
Decanter.com consultant editor Steven Spurrier, who routinely tastes 500 wines a week in the tasting season, is in no doubt of the intoxicating effect of tasting.
’I get pretty light-headed,’ he says. ’I can see by the quality of my handwriting between note 1 and note 100 that it’s had an effect.’
If you are tasting a lot of wines, it can help to take notes. Jot down your impressions as you taste - the look, the aroma, the taste and, then, an overall impression. Is wine simple and easy drinking? Is it complex with different layers of flavour? Is it ready to drink? Does it offer good value?
After you have sampled a wine with your eyes, nose and mouth, you will then be in a position to assess it. Is it simple and easy to drink or is it complex, with many different layers of flavours that will reveal themselves over time? Is it ready for drinking now or should you keep it for a while? Does it offer value for money? Most importantly, do you enjoy it?
A wine that gives immediate pleasure and doesn’t have any tannins that need to soften is ready to drink. If a red has a lot of tannin, then it may well need several years to soften and to show its best. A wine that feels closed or tight at the back of the palate will generally improve with time. Some young wines that taste very oaky, especially if the oak and the fruit seem separate, may just need time for these elements to marry together.
One of the continuing fascinations of wine lies in determining when it will be ready to drink. The optimum moment depends upon the individual drinker - some enjoy their wines young, when the fruit is to the fore, others prefer to wait until the wine has developed the richness that is characteristic of age.
Whatever your budget, getting value for money is very important. Even if a wine costs £2.49 (US$3.70), it’s too expensive if it disappoints. A poor wine at £25.99 (US$39) will be much more painful. Naturally, it is difficult to disentangle value for money from reputation, but past experience and a bit of research should help you to find your way through the maze of possibilities.
Fortunately, taste is very individual. We don’t all like or appreciate the same things and everyone has different flavour associations. Of course, it is worth taking account of what established critics such as Oz Clarke, Malcolm Gluck, Robert Parker and Jancis Robinson say, as they taste a vast range of wines and their pronouncements carry the weight of experience. But as far as you’re concerned, the most important assessment should be your own.
Most wine faults come from poor winemaking or from faulty materials, especially corks. Faults vary in intensity - some lessening the potential pleasure from a bottle, others making it undrinkable. Tasters can be sensitive to corked wines, while others notice too much sulphur
There are several wine faults. Most come from poor winemaking or from defective materials, especially corks. Faults vary in intensity - some merely lessening the potential pleasure from a bottle, others making it undrinkable.
Not all tasters are equally sensitive to particular faults - some notice a corked wine in seconds, while others may pick up on too much sulphur.
Main faults
Corked - the wine smells and tastes musty and sour. Caused by a fault in the cork whereby a chemical called TCA destroys the wine.
Oxidised - a wine that has had too much contact with oxygen. It has a sherry-like smell. Oxidised white wine is curiously dark in colour for its age while red is abnormally brown for its age. All wines gradually oxidise as they get older. This is an essential part of the ageing process. However, some wines are prematurely old. This may be due to poor handling of the grapes after they have been picked, faults in the winemaking or because the cork has provided an imperfect seal.
Over-sulphured - a wine that smells of burnt matches and leaves a sour taste in the back of the throat. It will often leave you with a foul headache the next morning. Sulphur dioxide is widely used as a necessary ’disinfectant’ in wine-making. Many winemakers now, however, try to use as little sulphur as possible. Today sulphur levels are generally much lower than they were twenty or thirty years ago.
Hydrogen-sulphide - bad egg smells that come from winemakers not paying sufficient attention during fermentation. Equally, they can occur if the wine has not been racked adequately while it matures.
Unclean barrels (’barrel taint’) - can give wine an unpleasant musty taste which is often very similar to a corked wine. Barrels, especially any that are empty for a while, have to be kept scrupulously clean to avoid tainting the wine. Where possible winemakers prefer to keep their barrels full with wine.
Acetic acid - common to all wines. In excess it will make the wine smell and taste vinegary.

Assessment of Groundwater Vulnerability

Matthias Hinderer

Darmstadt University of Technology,Institute of Applied Geosciences,Schnittspahnstr.9,64287 Darmstadt,Germany

1　General aspects

The protection of water resources,under quantitative and qualitative aspects,is one of the most urgent problems in the world-wide.Groundwater is sensitive against pollution by various chemicals from human activities via seepage through the soil and unsaturated zone.However,not all groundwater is endangered to the same degree,e.g.the rocks of an aquifer may directly reach the earth surface or they may be covered by more or less impermeable layers.The concept of groundwater vulnerability tries to classify these differences.

To protect groundwater and water supply systems against pollution a survey of the nature and status of the groundwater system as well as recommendations to decision-makers for environmental and infrastructure planning,agricultural and industrial management practices,potential danger of water resources to be contaminated,remediation measures,and scenarios for the future must be undertaken.The survey of a groundwater system with respect to its pollution involve:（i）Assessment of susceptibility against pollution,（ii）Behaviour of pollutants in the subsurface,（iii）Screening and long-term monitoring of groundwater quality,and（iv）Identification of sources of potential pollution.Decisions have to be made with respect to（i）Land use planning,（ii）Agricultural management practice,（iii）Remediation techniques,and（iv）Future scenarios.

The principle of sustainability aims to primarily protect groundwater against pollution be-fore it may reach wells and drinking water extraction areas.Therefore,assessment of the susceptibility of groundwater against pollution,i.e.the danger to be contaminated is the major task of this concept.This principle is not completely new in the sense that drinking water wells in industrialised countries have been protected by various concepts of protection zones since several decades.Protection zones are defined by estimated travel times of contaminants and restrictions to land use increase with decreasing distance to the extraction zone（see contribution Prof.Balke“Water protection zones”）.The concept of groundwater vulnerability is more universal and not connected to groundwater exploitation.Instead,a large number of environmental information is used to assess groundwater vulnerability for large areas（more and more entire river basins and states）and on a long-term perspective.Recently,this comprehensive principle of water protection also has become part of the EU framework directive of water and is increasingly applied in developing countries.

2　Definition and application

Individual environmental parameters and processes can enhance or reduce the negative impact of pollutants on groundwater.Just as man-made filtering device can be overloaded,so can the natural filtering capacity of soil and groundwater.The concept to define the susceptibility and filtering capacity of the groundwater system is called vulnerability.Physical,chemical,and biological processes in the soil,unsaturated zone,and saturated zone control the mobility or decay of dissolved pollutants（details see e.g.“Mobility of heavy metals in soils,groundwater,and surface water”）.

One can distinguish between：

（1）Intrinsic vulnerability,which only considers geogenic and natural process-es.Parameters under consideration are geological-lithological（infiltration and percolation zones）,morphological（surface forms）,geochemical（binding conditions of soil,composition of pollutants）,physical（adhesive and cohesive forces in soils）,and hydrogeological（surface and subterranean flow,flow direction and speed）.

（2）Specific vulnerability,which also consider the potential impact of human activities by adding temporal and/or economic aspects.Hereby,thresholds of an acceptable level of contamination（e.g.limiting values for drinking water quality,critical loads）may be defined.

The concept of specific vulnerability remains ambiguous because it mix up intrinsic characteristics with pollution risk.It is more useful to distinct between both aspects of groundwater pollution.In this sense the term vulnerability is better used in its restricted sense of intrinsic vulnerability.On the International Conference on“Vulnerability of soil and groundwater to pollutants”held in 1987 the following definition has been given in this sense（Duijvenbooden and Waegeningh,1987）:Groundwater vulnerability is the sensitivity of groundwater quality to an imposed contaminant load,which is determined by the intrinsic characteristics of the aquifer.

Thus defined,vulnerability is distinct from pollution risk.Pollution risk depends not only on vulnerability but also on the existence of significant pollutant loading entering the subsurface environment.It is possible to have high aquifer vulnerability but no risk of pollution,if there is no significant pollutant loading;and to have high pollution risk in spite of low vulnerability,if the pollutant loading is exceptional.Considerations on whether a groundwater pollution episode will result in serious threat to groundwater quality and thus to its water supply are not included in the proposed definition of vulnerability（Fig.1）.

Applications of the concept of vulnerability are:

（1）Water protection zones for drinking water wells，

（2）Regulation of agricultural soil treatment（e.g.fertilizers,pesticides,herbicides），

（3）Optimisation of groundwater monitoring，

（4）Risk assessment in city planning and new industrial developing areas，

（5）Risk assessment of contaminated sites，

Fig.1　Pollution path and assessment of pollution risk,intrinsic vulnerability,and specific vulnerability for groundwater

（5）Set-up of scenarios of groundwater pollution.

3 Methods

3.1　Hydrogeological system analysis

Until the late seventies,classified analogue maps have been evaluated to qualitatively assess groundwater vulnerability on a large scale.Several European countries published overview maps of groundwater vulnerability based on this concept.Geological maps and soil maps are reinterpreted in terms of permeability,thickness of unsaturated zone,and groundwater recharge rates.Nowadays,GIS techniques allow for a much more complex and resolved analysis of environmental data.

The qualitative analysis of the hydrogeological system is still useful to identify most relevant parameters and processes for further analysis.Especially for karst aquifers specific concepts have been developed,e.g.the COST action No.65“Hydrogeological aspects of groundwater protection in karst areas”of the European Union（COST-Action 65,1995）.Recently,a specific definition of protection zones in karst areas is used in Germany by the national surveys（Fig.2）.

Fig.2　Important components of the hydrogeological system analysis（after Magiera,2000）

3.2　Index methods and analogue relations

In the 1980ies,index methods and analogue relations have been developed to determine the decay behaviour of pesticides in soils.Based on a simplified transport equation using physical,chemical and pesticide-specific data the Attenuation Factor（AF）have been introduced by Rao et al.（1985）.In contrast to other indices it has widely used in case studies.A more general index,which is not related to a specific pollutant is the Aquifer Vulnerability Index（AVI）（van Stempvoort et al.1993）.It is based on the thickness and permeability of each sediment layer above the groundwater surface（“hydraulic resistance”）.Index methods are still in use for screening of agricultural areas but have been rarely verified（Fig.3）.

Fig.3　Important components of index methods and analogue relations（after Magiera,2000）

3.3 Point rating and matrix systems

Point rating and matrix systems have been developed for medium to large-scale areas.They are completely empirical and use a“general”pollutant.The parameters are selected according to their relevance for groundwater protection.A classification and ranking of these parameters lead to a final assessment of vulnerability.

Most parameters are related to the properties of the cover and groundwater.Because these methods only need a limited number of data they are often used for less surveyed areas.Among others the DRASTIC concept of the Environmental Protection Agency of the United States is widely applied（Aller et al.1985）.Several official vulnerability maps of US states and also in the European Union（e.g.Portugal）use this concept.It is based on seven parameters:Depth to water,Recharge,Aquifer media,Soil media,Topography（slope）,Impact of vadose zone（hydraulic）,Conductivity of the aquifer.All these parameters are evaluated and ranked and four classes of vulnerability are formed.

In Germany the national surveys use point rating systems to evaluate the protection capacity of the cover（Holting et al.,1995）.Parameters under consideration are restricted to soil and rock proper-ties:thickness of covering layers（M）,rock type（G）,field capacity of the soil（B）,groundwater recharge（W）and presence of artesian（D）or perched（Q）groundwater.The parameters are evaluated by point rating and summed up.Groundwater recharge acts as a weighting factor.Five vulnerability classes from very low to very high are distinguished（Fig.4）.

Fig.4　Important components of point rating and matrix systems（after Magiera,2000）

3.4　Mathematical models

Nowadays,numerous mathematical models are available to simulate groundwater flow and contaminant transport.They have become a standard tool for small-scale as well as large-scale groundwater management.Deterministic modelling of contaminant transport,however,needs a large data base,a careful field survey,and often also lab experiments（e.g.leaching experiments）.Thus,applications of sophisticated mathematical modelling of contaminant transport is usually restricted to intensively studied sites and dangerous point sources of contamination,e.g.contaminated industrial sites,waste deposits,oil spills.Some authors also consider diffuse groundwater pollution by combining groundwater models with models of contaminant leaching,unsaturated flow（e.g.nitrate,pesticides）or by coupling with point rating and matrix systems（e.g.DRASTIC）（Fig.5）.

Fig.5　Important components of mathematical models（after Magiera,2000）

3.5　Statistical methods

Statistical methods are increasingly used.They overcome the problem of selecting key parameters and allow for a much better documentation of uncertainties of data and methods.In order to do this,a complete digital data base is necessary,e.g.soil parameters,thickness of cover,permeabilities,hydrochemistry,environmental isotopes.Instead of defining arbitrarily artificial classes of groundwater vulnerability,probabilities and spatial correlations are calculated.Correlation of regionalized groundwater pollution data or environmental isotope data with data on soils,cover thickness and aquifer allow to verify the assessment and to extract control-ling parameters and temporal evolution.Several authors estimate groundwater vulnerability only from groundwater data,e.g.presence of tritium,nitrate concentrations,and specific groups of pollutants.Prerequisite is a dense monitoring network.Usually,data on soil and the geology of surface strata are easier to evaluate especially in developing countries（Fig.6）.

4　Examples of vulnerability maps

Nowadays,vulnerability maps are developed from a digital data base,which is managed in a GIS.The data necessary to create maps of intrinsic vulnerability include:

（1）Point information:wells and springs（lithology,permeability,hydrochemistry,isotopes etc.）

（2）Linear information:rivers,irrigation and drainage channels,etc.

Fig.6　Important components of statistical methods（after Magiera,2000）

（3）Areal information:geology,groundwater level,groundwater recharge,topography,soil,land use.

Point information might be regionalized and become areal data,e.g.permeability maps.（Fig.7）

Fig.7　Groundwater vulnerability map for the center of Berlin

5 Conclusions

The assessment of groundwater vulnerability is fundamental to any environmental planning and sustainable water management.Methods differ with respect to scale,selected parameters and processes,verification,pollutants,and data availability.Most definitions and methods follow the instrinsic properties of a groundwater system,which is mostly beyond human control,and do not specify the pollutant.In spite of the usefulness to evaluate vulnerability to pollution in relation to a particular class of pollutants,such as nutrients,organics,heavy metals,pathogens,etc.,generally there will be insufficient data available to perform specific vulnerability mapping.

In industrial countries numerous overview maps on various scales exist.They are particular useful for infrastructural,water resources and land use management and provide an important decision-making tool.In particular,recommendations or regulations for the use of fertilizers and pesticides in agriculture,for the selection of sites for waste deposits,for the handling of dangerous substances,and for mining activities can be given by such maps.The vulnerability concept is part of the EU water directive,which is based on the principle of a comprehensive protection of all groundwater against any kind and intensity of contamination.For this purpose index methods,analogue relations,point rating,and matrix systems are preferentially used which focus on the soil and unsaturated zone.

For point sources of contamination a pollutant and time-specific assessment of groundwater vulnerability is more appropriate.Here,mathematical and statistical models are preferentially applied which focus on the saturated zone.They are mostly verified and scenarios on pollution transport can be calculated by considering the residence time of contaminants,and natural attenuation processes.

References

Aller L,Bennet T.,Lehr J.H.,and Petty,R.J.DRASTIC:a standardized system for evaluating groundwater pollution potential using hydrogeological settings,U.S.EPA Report 600/2-85/018.（1987）.

COST-Action 65.Karstgroundwater protection.Final report-European Commission,Report EUR 16547 EN,（1995）,Brussels,Luxembourg.246 p.

Duijvenbooden W.van and Waegeningh H.G.van.Vulnerability of soil and groundwater to pollutants.Proceedings and Information No.38 of the International Conference held in the Netherlands,in 1987,TNO Committee on Hydrological Research,Delft,The Netherlands.1987.

Hölting B.,Haertle T.,Hohberger K.H.,Nachtigall K.H.,Villinger E.,Weinzierl W.,and Wrobel J.P.Konzept zur Ermittlung der Schutzfunktion der Grundwasserüberdeckung.Geologisches Jahrbuch Reihe C,Heft（1995）,63:5～24.

Magiera P.Methoden zur Abschätzng der Verschmutzungsempfindlichkeit des Grundwassers.-Grundwasser,2000,5:103～114.

Rao P.,Homsby A.and Jessur R.Inices for ranking the potential for pesticide contamination of groundwater.Proc.Soil Crop Sci.Soc.Florida,1985,44:1～8.

Stempvoort D.van,Ewert L.,Wassenaar L.Aquifer vulnerability index:A GIS-compatible method for groundwater vulnerability mapping.Canad.Water Res.J.,1993,18:25～37.